After months of sharing research findings from my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers and broader population samples … what have we learned?

1 - Museums are preaching to the choir. In much of what we do, we appeal to those that are intrinsically motivated to learn. But they are only a sliver of the population and we've pretty much cornered that market. Thus …

2 - We have to do much better identifying extrinsic motivations for learning, meeting those needs, and articulating them in our promotional materials. When considering life stage, this takes three forms:

• Young adults without children: focusing on being interesting places to visit (and revisit) with friends, but also family. This segment is already predisposed to visit, but for true engagement, we need to strengthen that connection.

 

• Older adults:  a surprisingly under-served audience, given they are least likely to have visited a museum in the last year. But also an opportunity to address increasing social and cognitive health needs in a growing segment of our population.

 

• The Parent Bubble: a captive audience of (mostly) extrinsically-motivated parents that we are not retaining as kids age into their tween and teen years. How do we create more meaningful experiences for the parents? How can we meet the different extrinsic needs during tween and teen years (when time together as a family is decreasing)? And how can we extend our product to even more extrinsically-motivated parents of younger children in ways that broaden our reach?

​
3 - We have to get comfortable with practical impact. That is, not only measuring it and using it as an assessment tool in our work, but also philosophically valuing it ourselves. Yes, I absolutely think the content of all museums should be valued for its own sake. But when we are competing with other organizations that can show their practical impact so much more clearly than us, we lose significant resources. So let's celebrate how we, concretely, matter in people's lives, which may mean as a tool to create better life outcomes. Because the thing is, that means we are also likely opening more minds, cultivating compassion and empathy, and creating connection and community. Having practical impacts does not preclude the impact of valuing art/history/science/or anything else for its own sake. Let's celebrate all of those impacts.

4 - And we matter. We matter for a myriad of reasons. For health and wellness. For prosociality. And for helping people to navigate an increasingly complex world with understanding, open minds, compassion, and strong connections to their communities and to others.

Which brings us to what I see as our role in social justice. We cannot claim to be just organizations until we truly provide equal access for all. The impact we have on individuals, and the potential outcomes of an intrinsically-motivated learning mindset, should not be reserved for those who are at the top (or close to it) of the hierarchies I recently shared. Claiming to welcome all is a sham unless we live it both at our museums and by taking our product to those who cannot visit in person. That means taking programs and exhibitions to our communities, not waiting for them to come. Free admission isn't enough.  We can, and should, do much more.

We can also do more in our exhibits and programming by adding individual outcomes to our criteria for planning. Not "our visitors will learn x, y, and/or z," but "will this program expose our visitors to a new culture, a new perspective, a new idea?" Or "will this exhibit make people think, care, or even cry?"

The challenge is, however, that extrinsically-motivated visitors (particularly parents) are not asking for these types of impacts. Not seeking them out. And generally have not experienced those impacts for themselves in museums. If we are going to effect change, we probably shouldn't market it (after all, we have the audience that deliberately seeks it out already), but instead combine those experiences with what extrinsically-motivated visitors specifically want. So that we become a multi-tasking tool of impact.

I'll admit that I have an agenda now in my work. A human agenda. An agenda that has at its focus the amazing thing of being human in this world, and being humane to others in it, through learning and engagement.

And that is why I do what I do. And why I hope others will join me in doing more of this kind of work in support of museums. Because this work is difficult to measure. Yet I suspect there are few things that have those impacts as effectively and efficiently as museums. Yes, there are other things that create those outcomes as well (and are also likely used by parents and caregivers to benefit their children), but what is as effective and efficient? We should figure that out. Soon.

But I need your help to continue this work, as I cannot do it on my own.

I can only field this work when museums join together to provide not only a source for samples, but also minimal funding that I use to purchase broader population samples and push research deeper.

So please, if you value my work, and want to see more of it in the coming year, join the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers. For your museum’s $1,000 fee,* you’ll receive your museum’s custom results from the 2018 survey, including:

• Tracking of museum’s audiences, and their perceptions of your work, over time
• Comparison with peers
• Up to two custom questions for your stakeholders
• Results via spreadsheet and slide deck
• A personal call with me to discuss your results, and contextualize them with broader trends

But just as important, you will help the entire field gain new insights on what museums can do to make a difference in all of our communities. To enroll or find more information, please visit wilkeningconsulting.com.

*$1,000 fee applies to museums that launch their survey in January or February 2018; the fee increases to $3,000 for museums that launch March 1 or later.


The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

This hierarchy is the fourth in a series I developed out of my broader population work and my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers. Please see my introductory post on why I hate Maslow's hierarchy, and why I am using his model with very strong reservations.

My fourth and final hierarchy looks at outcomes. What are the typical outcomes of individuals who are at the apex (for lack of better word) of the other three hierarchies? Or the typical outcomes of individuals who are not motivated learners and/or may be focusing on self-sufficiency (as described in the hierarchy on "Capacity for Engagement")?

Well, roughly this final hierarchy. Those at the top of the other hierarchies tend to be at the top of this one … with higher income, health, and wellbeing. And those at the bottom of the other hierarchies tend to be at the bottom of this one too.

But there are caveats to start, of course. I am making broad generalizations, which is useful, but individuals can always differ. Someone can be at the apex on one of the hierarchies, but at the bottom of another. Or, someone can be at the bottom of all three of the hierarchies I have already shared, but at the apex of this outcomes one by, for example, the good fortune of birth into a very affluent family.

Additionally, as I have said before, this is not a judgment on anyone's individual worth. One can be at the apex of all of these hierarchies, and still be a horrible person; the opposite is true as well. External factors are so numerous, rooted in class and race, societal pressures and structures (for good and ill), and upbringing. It is wrong to make a judgment on a person doing the best they can, within constraints that may be out of their control.

And I believe museums have an obligation to do all they can to remove those constraints so that more people can attain these positive outcomes, increase their capacity to engage, be intrinsically motivated to learn, and enjoy our world.

​OK, now let's get to what the data says. Looking across three major national studies (two broader population samples and my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers), I see patterns in the data that households with a learning mindset have better outcomes. That is, those who are proactive about learning, whether extrinsically or intrinsically motivated, do better. Most importantly, this holds true when educational attainment is controlled for.

That is, if we are to look at only those who have a college degree, those who do things like volunteer in their community, engage with the broader world, and proactively learn about that world through, for example, museum visitation, are more likely to be employed, have a significantly higher income, and have better long-term health outcomes.

The same is true if we only look at those without a college degree.

It isn't that going to museums creates this outcome. Let's make that clear. Additionally, I'm not, by any means, the first to have these types of findings; other researchers are finding similar patterns, attributing these types of life outcomes to arts engagement and proactive learning (see sources, below).

Instead, it is an affirmation that having a proactive learning mindset matters. It matters for cultural competency. It matters for inter-disciplinary and critical thinking skills. It matters for healthy communities. And it matters for socio-personal relationships. That's likely what makes these individuals more employable (and at a higher wage) as well as giving them more positive health and wellness outcomes.

And we can claim that museums are important tools used by many of those with a proactive learning mindset to get there. That matters.

Our challenge is that we don't have enough evidence to make a compelling case that we contribute more towards these outcomes than, say, Lumosity (which science says isn't a whole lot). If we are going to continue to matter to more individuals in the future, and to make it easier for more people to proactively pursue learning (and improve their life outcomes as well), we need that evidence to back up our assertions. Evidence that can lead to funding to broaden and deepen our impact.

Happily, more of that good work is happening, especially around health and wellness (see below). My work around the value of museums is a starting point for more significant work around learning motivations and the outcomes of a proactive learning mindset. I'll continue that work, and am hopeful others will do so as well since, as researchers, we all bring different skills and our own mindsets to the research table.

You can help as well. By joining my studies and/or those of others (more information below.) Because now more than ever, we need museums to open minds, develop connections, and strengthen communities.


For more on health and wellness outcomes and prosociality from arts engagement (an indicator of a learning mindset), see my reviews of:

Creative Health: The Arts for Health and Wellbeing
The Arts as a Catalyst for Human Prosociality and Cooperation
The Social Wellbeing of New York City's Neighborhoods: The Contribution of Culture and the Arts

For more on having a learning mindset, see Mindset: The New Psychology of Success, by Carol S. Dweck.
*when educational attainment is controlled for



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 



The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

This hierarchy is the third in a series I developed out of my broader population work and my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers. Please see my introductory post on why I hate Maslow's hierarchy, and why I am using his model with very strong reservations.

My third hierarchy steps back to look at the whole person, and what their life circumstances allows. In some ways, this hierarchy is the closest to Maslow. And this hierarchy is directly inspired by work from the Science of Generosity Initiative at the University of Notre Dame, which was released in the book American Generosity. I explored some of these ideas recently, and I strongly encourage you to see my review of that work on The Curated Bookshelf.

In American Generosity, the researchers discussed four levels of capacity to give:

• Level 1: Self-sufficiency - taking care of self and not being a burden to others.
• Level 2: Relational-parental - taking care of immediate family members so as not to be a burden to others; working to provide opportunities to family members to improve family outcomes (such as working multiple jobs to enable a child to go to college).
• Level 3: Community-religious - helping others in your community through giving locally and through houses of worship (e.g., tithing). Rather concrete giving where the giver sees how it benefits the community; feeling like they are part of community of givers.
• Level 4: Self-actualized giving (they called it professional-lifestyle, but I don't think that is totally accurate) - broader giving that goes beyond personal communities, and can be more abstract. They also include giving to maintain professional and social standing.​​

I've flipped these levels upside-down, where they form a logical reflection of Maslow's hierarchy. After all, if you can't take care of yourself at a basic, fundamental level, how are you supposed to take care of others?

In this case, however, I'm looking at engagement, which is broader than generosity. Indeed, I would argue that generosity is an outgrowth of engagement, because we are generous to those we are intellectually and/or emotionally engaged with. And, like in American Generosity, I'm looking through the lens of capacity. We all have different resources at our disposal, including resources of time, energy, and money. And thus, class is inextricably bound up in capacity. Therefore I want to be very, very careful here to not cast judgment on anyone. My default is that everyone is doing the best they can with the resources available to them, whether at the "self" level or the "broader world" level.

• Self: we take care of ourselves and our basic needs. For some, this takes all of their resources, and requires a very inward focus.
• Family (can also include close friends): we also take care of those we care the most about. When I think of this level, I think of parents scrambling to make sure they have childcare and that they get their kids to school on time. I also think of those parents working overtime to pay for college educations, "sandwiched" adults caring for both children and ailing parents, and grandparents caring for grandchildren. And I think of single parents doing the best they can to make ends meet. With those demands, it is difficult to look up and pay attention to what is going on in our communities, much less the broader world. In terms of museums, this is where we are likely to see some extrinsically-motivated parents who visit museums for their children.
• Community: when someone has capacity to look up and pay attention to what is going on in their community. To be fair, those at self and family levels may do this as well when something directly affects them or their family. But generally, this level means noticing the things that are indirect … or the things that could be made better. A feeling of involvement and connection with community and, like self and family, rather concrete in engagement because of its immediacy. In terms of museums, this is where we see deep community engagement, support of museums as "good" for a community, and perhaps a sense that museums contribute to a community's identity.
• Broader world: extending beyond community to paying attention, and being concerned about, things that are not immediate. It may be thinking more globally, contextualizing world events, and caring about things happening to those one doesn't know.  And in terms of museums, this is where we see individuals valuing museums for bringing that broader world to them, and the outcomes of those experiences for themselves and for others.

All of these levels are based in capacity. That doesn't mean that the affluent have a lock on the "broader world" level (they don't). Nor does it mean that someone at the self or family level is poor (I can think of at least one prominent family that seems to be stuck on the family level, despite having hundreds of millions at their disposal). Additionally, positions are not fixed. An individual who would normally be at the "broader world" level may suddenly find themselves at the "family" level if a family crisis arises. It all depends on capacity to pay attention, and capacity means some mix of financial, time, and energy resources.

Capacity can also, however, be rooted in mindset. If someone is raised in a household that engages with their local community, or the broader world, it is more likely that that individual will be an adult that looks up, pays attention, and engages … regardless of financial resources (that family may be devoting time and energy resources to make that happen; libraries and houses of worship seem to help a lot here). And museums seem to contribute to developing individuals with a broader world mindset, since museum-goers tell me that museums help them broaden perspectives, develop greater understanding of others and of other cultures, and develop empathy. Thus, museums may play a critical role in increasing the capacity of children to grow up into engaged, and contributing, adults. And that takes us to our fourth hierarchy, coming next.



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum.


The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

This hierarchy is the second in a series I developed out of my broader population work and my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers. Please see my introductory post on why I hate Maslow's hierarchy, and why I am using his model with very strong reservations.

My second hierarchy looks at the motivations for museum visitation. At the bottom, the two broadest swaths of people: those who do not visit museums at all and those who only visit extremely casually (and probably less than once a year). Combined, this is probably about 2/3 of Americans, as both of the broader population samples I am working with validate.

As we move up the hierarchy,  however, we begin to see motivations for visiting museums.

• Social reasons and/or benefit to children. People visit to spend time with people they care about, both friends and family. To help children's development. I put these together because they are fundamentally about other people, not about the individual responding and their relationship with museum content. And that's OK. Fantastic even. They see museums as good places to step outside of everyday life and connect with someone they care about. Or that museums are helpful places for their children (and also a place for family connection). Those are incredibly valuable things that happen in our museums, every day, and are qualities in shorter supply elsewhere. And they are the most common motivation for visitors, regardless of overall learning mindset; it motivates me as well.
• Interest in specific subject. This one is smaller for two reasons: this motivation is now about the specific content at a museum (and one's response to it), and it is a bit hit-or-miss because it is based on specific interests. I'll explain. Imagine someone is interested in … birds. A museum hosts a bird exhibition, and they visit because they are interested in birds. So it is a response to the specific content being presented. But when that exhibit goes down and a new one on, say, origami, goes up, the visitor may not return unless they are interested in origami. That makes it hit-or-miss. I'm giving very narrow examples and, fortunately, people tend to have broader interests. They like history, or art, or science. Where it differs from the social/children reasons is that, theoretically, any museum can be a backdrop for those social/children reasons, while this one is limited by interest in the subject being presented. I've over-simplified it, however. Reality is more complicated, and often these are intertwined to some degree.
• Gain knowledge/become well-rounded/broaden perspectives. While the previous categories tend to be where extrinsically-motivated museum-goers congregate, as they are not visiting for an inherent love of learning in general, this category is, to be honest, a bit messy. That is because I will see in my data individual respondents who respond to my questions as a typical, extrinsically-motivated person might … but when I ask them to reflect on the value of museums in their life, they will talk about how much museums have taught them and how that knowledge has rounded them out, broadened their perspectives. But then, this isn't that surprising. If you go back to when I shared about proactive vs. reactive learners, it fits right in. These individuals are likely both highly extrinsically and intrinsically motivated, but the extrinsic motivations still have an overall edge on the intrinsic ones. With both being strong, their results are messier and make sense. And that is why specific interest in the subject is also no longer as important. Since they have such high intrinsic motivations to learn, they are more open to a wider variety of topics. They are more omnivorous in their museum choices.
• Intrinsic, love of learning. And here is where we have our museum-goers who are predominantly intrinsically motivated. Only a tiny sliver of the population, but our most avid visitors.

As a general model, this hierarchy works. And for museum-goers, one motivation tends to build on the next. That is, those who are intrinsically motivated also feel museums help them gain knowledge/broaden perspectives, will visit museums that have content they are specifically interested in, and enjoy museums for social reasons. Motivations tend to aggregate.

But please be mindful that what I share below isn't necessarily true for every single person. For example, an individual could fit easily in that "intrinsic, love of learning" category, but always visit museums alone. It may not even occur to them to visit with friends or family. Additionally, motivations can shift from one visit to another. I am highly intrinsically motivated in most of my museum visits, but not all; the umpteenth visit to one of my local museums is because my daughter loves it, not because of my intrinsic motivation (which disappeared around visit four, to be honest).

​And finally, as I have said before, one's place on the hierarchy is not an assessment of character or worth. There are many external reasons for why someone may have higher or lower capacity for learning motivations, both intrinsic and extrinsic. I'll explore that a bit more in my third hierarchy.

​
A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 
​
Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 

The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

This is the first hierarchy in a series I developed out of my broader population work and my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers. Please see my introductory post on why I hate Maslow's hierarchy, and why I am using his model with very strong reservations.

To begin laying out the four hierarchies I have devised, I am starting with overall learning motivations (which affects museum-going, but isn't about museums necessarily).

To be honest, this first hierarchy, inspired by Maslow, is pretty straightforward. Especially since I have laid out these categories before, in a post on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for learning. 

​

• Intrinsically motivated - active learners. There are our most avid, lifelong museum-goers. They visit museums as one of many things they do to engage their brains and emotions (and, to be fair, some in this category actually don't visit museums much). They have a high need for cognition. And they do it out of sheer enjoyment (which doesn't preclude other outcomes, such as higher incomes, better employment, etc.).
• Extrinsically motivated - active learners. Also tend to be avid museum-goers, but only when museums meet their needs. Parenthood is a prime example (i.e., they visit museums because it is good for their children). They have a learning mindset like those that are intrinsically motivated do, but primarily as a means to an end towards other goals, such as formal educational attainment, better employment prospects, etc. This doesn't mean there is no intrinsic motivation, but that extrinsic motivations outweigh intrinsic ones … often for good reason.
• Extrinsically motivated - reactive learners. This group has two categories:
  • For many of these individuals, there is no learning mindset and they have a low need for cognition. That is, they attend school as long as necessary, but no longer. Same thing with workplace training. In survey work, they are likely to say that learning or education is important, but their actions don't bear this out (and they rarely, if ever, visit museums). Since they don't actively seek out learning, for themselves or their children, we tend to see lower lifetime outcomes from these individuals.
  • There are some individuals in this group who do value learning, but they don't have the time, energy, and/or financial resources to be active about it. In this case, it is a matter of capacity. If they had time, energy, and/or financial resources, they would be in the active category (either extrinsically or intrinsically motivated). See my essay about educational tailwinds for more.
• The amotivational. There probably are a few people out there who would say learning isn't important, and avoid it to such a degree they are not even reactive learners. Complete non-participants. Assuming they exist, they probably don't show up in surveys or research projects much, if at all.

Much of this hierarchy is based on capacity. That is, what are the external forces at play that can constrain learning? Especially discretionary learning (that is, not K-12 schooling or workplace training). Being an active learner takes time, energy, and financial resources to pursue. Not everyone has that.

But intrinsic motivation, as I've shared before, can come from a place of privilege. A place of being able to assume that the extrinsically-motivated payoffs of job, solid income, etc., will be there, thus allowing the intrinsic motivation to take precedent. This doesn't suggest that being affluent means having an intrinsic motivation, but if one is intrinsically motivated, it helps to be affluent enough to support that motivation.

I am loathe to judge anyone based on their learning motivation (which is one reason I don't like the hierarchical nature of Maslow, as it implies judgment). One's individual motivation to learn appears to be wrapped up in capacity, which is built on so many external, societal factors, that I've come to the idea that most of us are simply doing the best we can. Yes, I would love for that intrinsically motivated segment of the population to grow. We need it to grow for many reasons (which the other hierarchies I share will inform), and I believe museums play a significant role in growing it. But not in a vacuum. Society needs more than that, and individuals and families deserve those opportunities to grow.



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 


The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

I have a love-hate relationship with Maslow's hierarchy of needs. You know, that psychological theory shaped like a pyramid.

It isn't that I think it is wrong, but more the suggestion that those at the top (self-actualization) could be construed as better than those at the bottom (physiological). The sheer placement suggests this … that it could be a character assessment.

I really hate this about Maslow. Especially since being lower on the hierarchy is often a matter of external forces, and not character at all.

So it is with mixed feelings that I suddenly deploy Maslow's hierarchy. A lot. I do so because it is well-understood by museum professionals, easy to remember, and it makes sense in what I have to share. And because every other graphic I came up with was either worse or misleading.

Please, however, don't take it as judgmental of any part of the population. Instead, it is largely an assessment of capacity, and the many external factors affecting that. If I feel the need to be judgmental, I'll be crystal clear about it.

That being said, what am I up to?

Over the past few months, I've shared a great deal of research about museum-goers and the broader population. This work has been rooted in a broader population study I fielded in the fall of 2016, the 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers, and the work I did with AAM and their Museums and America 2017 sampling (forthcoming). My interpretation of all of this work was also influenced by research from the University of Notre Dame's Science of Generosity Initiative, which considered generosity and engagement through a lens of capacity, which I think is sensitive and highly appropriate (see my review of their book, American Generosity).

In my work, I've explored different segments of the population, and I've looked at the population through the lens of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of learning. The correlations I see among those motivations, museum-going, civic engagement, political engagement and persuasion, and life outcomes are, overall, pretty clear. Compelling. And while I am loathe to call my work definitive (far from it), there is enough here for me to lay out these broad conclusions and seek to understand the why behind them.  Because the more I look, the more complexity I see. By educational attainment. By age. By race and ethnicity. And within every category as well.

Inspired by the researchers at Notre Dame, I'm looking at all of this through a capacity lens. My hope is that it makes me more sensitive and realistic about my findings, and respectful of individuals, their mindsets, and their actions.

To illustrate my broad findings, I've developed four new versions of Maslow's hierarchy, each through a different lens of consideration.

• Motivations around learning (intrinsic, extrinsic)
• Engagement with community, broader world
• Purpose of museum visitation (a narrower lens)
• Life outcomes

What I do like about this method is that, by placing my new hierarchies side-by-side, it is also possible to get a general read on the US population. Most people who are at the apex of one of my hierarchies are likely to be at the apex of the others … but not always. Consider them new rules-of-thumb, but with many exceptions and far more testing and research to verify.

I'll be illustrating and discussing each new version over the next few weeks.



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 


The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

Several months ago, the book American Generosity completely changed how I thought about how and why people engage with their world. In particular, they described people's generosity (which includes civic engagement) in terms of capacity. Everyone has different capacities to engage, and those capacities are rooted in socio-economic status, upbringing, childhood experiences, peer groups, and other factors.

It wasn't judgmental. It could have been. They could have said "someone who doesn't even give a dollar to charity is a jerk." But they didn't automatically make that assumption. Instead, through the lens of capacity, they found much more nuance, and by not being judgmental, it was easier to see how deeper change can be affected.

I'm going to try and do likewise. Because I think the capacity approach is crucial not only to generosity, but to civic engagement and to lifelong learning. That matters, and deeply, to museums.

(You'll see me refer to American Generosity, based on work done by the Science of Generosity Initiative at the University of Notre Dame, a few times as I continue to share research. I strongly encourage you to read my review of it on The Curated Bookshelf. Then you can decide if you want to dig through the book itself.)

Which brings me to the disengaged. In my broader population work last fall, I kept looking at this group of people.

Because, first of all, they are not generally museum-goers. As a field, we talk constantly about broadening our audiences across different demographic and socio-economic dimensions. These are those individuals.

But it isn't that it is a world of either people who visit museum or those who don't. It is much bigger than that.

The disengaged are far less civically engaged. They feel less connected to their communities. Additionally, they have fewer concerns about, less interest in, and do far fewer things in their communities.

And when it comes to politics, they are more likely to say they don't care about politics than to identify themselves anywhere on the political spectrum.

In American Generosity, when describing individuals who fit into this category of disengagement, they wrote about them, well, generously. They described individuals focused on providing for themselves and their families at the basic level of food, shelter, clothing, medicine. They described individuals with their heads down, working multiple jobs to provide for their families, or to save for their children's educations. And they described people who came from backgrounds of want, who psychologically need to feel any future rainy days are taken care of.

In those descriptions, I could see why museums don't fit in. Or even community engagement or political engagement. It is a very inward focus, and one most of us have. I know I am focused on providing for my family, making sure college educations will be paid for, and that a rainy day doesn't set us back. You probably are as well.

But I have resources. Or, privilege. I'm well-educated, my spouse is well-educated, and that inward focus doesn't take 100% of my attention. I have capacity. Capacity to look up and see what is, first, going on in the world directly around me (my community), and then the world more broadly. Capacity to engage with both. And capacity to continue to educate myself about both, meaning time to read books, visit museums, and be generous to others in need. To my utmost capacity.

You probably do too. We're peers. And we are in that biggest bubble in the illustration below from American Generosity (I don't like their term "professional;" I'd replace that with engagement with broader world). That makes us privileged, and it is incumbent on us to not only acknowledge that, but to be more understanding of those who have less capacity than we have.

Because where this bubble chart is actually misleading is the size of the bubbles. In reality, it is more like a Maslow's hierarchy, and the individuals at the apex (which I would call "broader world - lifestyle generosity") are a small sliver of the population, while far more people fall in those other bubbles/lower in the hierarchy.

How many? Good question.

A lot. In my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers, virtually all respondents are engaged with their communities to some degree. But most people who are focused 100% on self or familial (or friend) sufficiency are not museum-goers. Museum-goers, it turns out, are outliers.

But a fair number of the disengaged do show up in my broader population work. And here it becomes really complicated. Bear with me, and let's walk through making an estimate about the population.

The typical markers of disengagement are, in my work, feeling "not very" connected to a community and/or not caring about politics. Those folks, overwhelmingly, are disengaged individuals who do little in their community and are unlikely to visit museums (among other markers). They comprise 42% of my broader population sample, but I want to be conservative. Let's knock it down a bit.

To 30% of my sample.

But when I look at individuals who say they are only "somewhat" connected to their community, their response patterns to questions about their community and museum engagement are very similar to the disengaged. They comprise 30% of my sample, but not all are disengaged. I'll be conservative and say half are.

So 30% + 15% = 45%

And then there are the people who feel very connected to their communities by virtue of birth. Turns out, feeling connected in this way does not necessarily mean engagement. About half are "rooted in place" by choice, and are engaged and active citizens (and more likely to be museum-goers). But about half are "tied to place" by default, and their other responses indicate that they are, you got it, disengaged.  15% of my sample were very connected by birth; the half that are "tied to place" then comprise 7.5%. Let's be conservative again and say 5%.

So 45% + 5% = 50%

Scary number. But there's more. Survey bias. If you go back and read my introduction to the 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers, you'll read about the blind spot that every broader population sample has. A large segment of the population that surveys never reach in the first place. To be conservative, let's say that 30% of the population never see these surveys at all (and never seeing surveys in the first place is a sure-fire sign of disengagement).

So, my 50% above is of that 70% of the population represented in broader population surveys. 50% of that 70% is 35%.

Which means 35% sampled + 30% never sampled = 65%

Two-thirds of the population isn't that engaged with their communities or the broader world.

Seem high? Maybe. But remember, disengagement doesn't mean they never vote (many do, especially in presidential elections). Yet this explains the low levels of voting in local elections, why it is always the same people that volunteer and run local organizations, and why so few Americans have visited a museum in the past year.

This doesn't mean that 65% of Americans are never generous, never paying attention to their communities, or that they don't care, however. My research indicates significantly lower levels of engagement, but not necessarily zero engagement. Additionally, my handful of surveys, like every other survey in the world, are imperfect. My surveys are not capturing neighborhood dynamics. Or engagement with informal neighborhood networks. Or desires for more involvement. They also don't capture capacity to engage that would increase dramatically if economic necessities were taken care of. That's a lot more nuance than a few surveys can tell us about. Yet you have to start somewhere.

What about museums? Does this mean that the broadest audience we can hope for is 35% of the population? Because if that's true, we've pretty much tapped that out in terms of casual + regular visitation.

Actually, I think to the contrary. It means there is a huge potential for delivering impact in truly meaningful ways. And it all has to do with motivation.

The vast majority of that two-thirds of the disengaged population (as well as a fair number of the engaged), are extrinsically-motivated learners. Yet we know from my work about the value of museums that museums can make a difference in lives, and deliver meaningful impact. Museums can do so in ways that meet the explicit needs of the extrinsically motivated.

We're not going to convince them by talking about the joy of discovery or unleashing creativity, however. We have to be more pragmatic about it and deliver content that meets their needs, where they are, with outcomes that matter to them. Their kids will do better in school. This will help them land a better job. And so on. In no way does that diminish our missions because this pragmatic approach does not preclude the joy of discovery or the unleashing of creativity. We can do both. In fact, I'm not sure anyone else can do both as effectively.


And, finally, a word about jerks.

While I appreciate the nuance and sensitivity around thinking about engagement through a capacity lens, let's be honest. There are some people who are just jerks that don't care about others. They can have billions of dollars, power, and influence. And they can be stuck in the self or familial sufficiency bubbles. Not because they lack capacity but because they are jerks.

I'm making the assumption that these individuals are outliers, and are not at all typical. The exceptions that prove the rule. I hope you do likewise. But that doesn't mean it isn't prudent to be aware of them and, when necessary, resist them.

Or, even better, reach them in meaningful, even transformative ways. I'm optimistic.




A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 



The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

Mobility. When we think of regular museum-goers, we often (correctly) think about them in terms of being well-educated professionals. But we don't generally think about the mobility that comes with that education.

But educated people tend to have more options in life, and that includes where they live. This contributes to brain-drain from some communities, where college-bound youth typically don't return after graduation, while other communities teem with young, well-educated adults (Silicon Valley, Seattle, Brooklyn).

Thus, it is more likely that our local visitors are not born-and-bred locals. In my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers, only one in five respondents said they felt "very" connected to their community because they had lived there all their lives. (And I suspect most of them are "rooted in place" by choice, unlike in broader population samples.)

But a third of museum-goers feel deeply connected through their own efforts. They worked hard to put down deep roots in the community they settled in as an adult.

Which brings us to life stage, mobility, and community engagement. Mobility tends to happen at specific times in people's lives, and that matters for community engagement over a lifetime. (So does arts consumption and museum-going, as I mentioned before, and will cover in more detail soon.)

So let's first look at the patterns in the data about regular museum-goers. 

Young Adults Under 40, no children

These young adults are highly mobile and, as relatively new residents, haven't really put down roots. Among museum-goers, they are the least connected to their communities, with only a third saying they felt "very" connected. They are also twice as likely as other museum-goers to not feel connected at all.

Why? Well, they are far more likely to be single, living in a community they moved in to. The only community networks they have are likely to be through their work (which may or may not be conducive to developing community connections) and any friends they have made. Breaking into a community is hard.

Yet that doesn't mean they don't care about their communities. Indeed, they are the least likely segment to say that they think their community is doing "fine," and they are the most likely to have concerns about their community. Additionally, in my broader population work, young adults were the most likely to value local museums and libraries (as well as other amenities such as a diverse population, access to parks and nature, and interesting restaurants and food markets).

My question for museums, then, is how can help young adults build broader and deeper community networks in the communities they live? This has to go beyond evening events (though those help) to additional initiatives designed to help these concerned young adults connect and engage with their communities. Bonus: museums become even more relevant in the process.

Parents with Young Children

Museum-going parents with young children, we now know, tend to be extrinsically motivated. That extends to their community engagement as well. While two-fifths feel "very" connected to their communities, it varies widely based on motivation: intrinsically-motivated parents are about a third more likely to feel deeply connected than extrinsically-motivated parents (57% do).

And since the vast majority of museum-going parents of young children are extrinsically motivated, it is not a surprise that this segment of respondents had the fewest concerns about their community. Perhaps an indication that they are not engaged enough with their community to know what to be concerned about.

Why? I suspect it has to do with depth of engagement. Both sets of parents likely found parenthood was a catalyst for developing a more extensive community network. Suddenly, via children, the local network expands … quickly.

But intrinsically-motivated parents were likely more engaged in their communities before children, because it suited their needs and interests and because engagement in arts and museums specifically is a predictor of prosociality and cooperation, as other studies have found as well (even when controlling for education and income).  Their quality of engagement is thus deeper, and likely more diverse, than parents whose engagement is primarily via their children.

This has some interesting outcomes when we consider museum type. Parents of young children who visit history or art museums regularly (and are more intrinsically motivated) are more deeply connected to their communities and have more concerns about their communities than parents of young children who visit children's museums or science centers regularly (and are more extrinsically motivated).

Which suggests that children's museums and science centers have an opportunity here to consider ways that they can help their captive audience of extrinsically-motivated parents connect more deeply, and thus deliver greater community impact through an even more civically-engaged population. How? A start might be by considering ways parents can get to know their neighbors better. After all, not knowing neighbors was their top concern, with 38% flagging it.

Parents of Tweens and Teens

As we saw in my recent releases on The Parent Bubble, by middle school we have lost most (but not all) extrinsically-motivated parents and their children as regular museum-goers. Museum-going parents of tweens and teens are more likely to be intrinsically-motivated. And since they are older, and intrinsically-motivated, they have had both more time and reason to develop deeper community connections: over half feel "deeply" connected.

Broader population samples, however, hint at something else going on. When it comes to interest in and activity levels in a community, there seems to be a pulling-back among this segment. That is, as children become more independent, community engagement with the parents contracts slightly. We see this manifest itself clearly with The Parent Bubble, as museum-going drops significantly. But it comes out in other ways too as children no longer drive parental engagement as much. Dropping off children at events requires far less involvement than staying and supervising (and chatting with others). I'll be looking for better ways to track this "midlife malaise" as research progresses, but retaining these parents as museum-goers may be a start.

Older Adults, no minor children
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Among museum-goers, older adults have the deepest connection to their communities: 61% feel deeply connected. It makes sense. They are intrinsically-motivated, and they have likely spent longer time in their communities, having settled in and deepened roots (2.5x more likely to say they have put down deep roots than young adults).
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Despite that, young adults without children, as I mentioned earlier, have more concerns about their community than even this segment. True, older adults are more concerned about an aging population, but they are less concerned about knowing neighbors, or the needs of at-risk children, and so on.

Broader population samples reflect some, but not all, of these patterns. Connection to community stabilizes in middle age, and stays relatively steady through the older years. But older adults were less interested in their community, and its amenities, than younger adults. More broadly, older adults vote more, but engage less with their communities than younger adults. Why? My initial findings indicate it has to do with educational attainment. Community engagement and education go hand-in-hand. Since older adults have lower levels of educational attainment, they have overall lower levels of community engagement. And that also means lower levels of museum-going. Older adult museum-goers are, it turns out, outliers of engagement.

But that indicates a huge growth opportunity for museums. We have a rapidly aging population. We'll be beset with ever-increasing healthcare needs as they age. Healthy aging is going to be critically important to help seniors in their old age so that they live the best lives they can for as long as possible, benefiting themselves, their families, and healthcare costs. Museums are fantastic at providing both social and cognitive benefits, which all support overall well-being (see my research reviews of The Social Wellbeing of New York City's Neighborhoods and Creative Health: The Arts for Health and Wellbeing for evidence of impact). Our communities, and our healthcare system, need places like museums. By engaging more seniors with museums, and encouraging their greater community engagement, we truly serve our communities well.

But what about socio-economic status?

To reinforce, most of what I shared in this essay is about well-educated museum-goers. Yes, I brought in work from broader population sampling to support my conclusions, but the broader work is more complicated, largely due to socio-economic status, lower educational attainment, and structural racism. I'll begin to unpack that next.


A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 
​
Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 

The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

I am struggling with how I release my research findings on community engagement. It would be easy for readers to come away from them thinking that all individuals who are intrinsically motivated to learn are also the most engaged in their communities and the most altruistic. When, actually, an intrinsically motivated person can be a total jerk.

And it would also be easy to come away from this series thinking that extrinsically-motivated individuals are "not as good as" intrinsically-motivated ones because they are less likely to be engaged in their communities and are less likely to be altruistic. But that hides the fact that there are some highly engaged, highly altruistic individuals who just happen to be more extrinsically motivated than intrinsically motivated. After all, motivations are not a zero-sum game, and individual can have high degrees of both … and I'm looking at which one they have more of.

But there are many reasons why people are, or are not, highly engaged in their communities, or with museums. So I'll share what the data shows me, from my 2017 Annual Survey of Museum-Goers as well as broader population sampling, in as clinical way as possible. I also beg of you to please remember that these are generalizations based on the overall patterns in the data, and should not be taken as character assessments of any individual person. Every individual person is different, and has different capacities for engagement and learning that may be rooted in socioeconomic status, upbringing, and other influences. And  yes, a few people are just jerks.

Now, that being said, let's dive in.

As a field, we are pretty obsessed about community engagement. At least when it comes to our museums. But let's be honest. Generally, we talk about community engagement as more people involved with our museums. That's too narrow (and self-serving).

I want to change our perspective on community engagement, and turn it around to think about what it is, as individuals, we really want for our communities.

And that is healthy communities. Communities that are productive, have a high quality of life, and that provide a good education for children. Communities that support overall wellness from birth to death, thus contributing to our broader society as well.

That means safety, good schools, solid infrastructure, quality affordable housing, and healthcare. But it also means libraries, parks, and places to come together. Vibrant downtowns. Active community centers. The things that make our communities places we care about, and that make us, individually, better able to contribute to our communities as well.

Engagement in our communities means being a full participant in those things.

But my research indicates that there are wide disparities in individual levels of community engagement. There are segments of the population that have extremely low levels of connection to their community. And there are others that have much higher levels of connection (with a whole of people falling somewhere in between).  To a considerable extent, this correlates with socioeconomic status, but not entirely. I also see shifting patterns of community engagement by life stage.

Museum-going is another indicator of community engagement. That is, the more someone feels connected to their community, and the more they engage with their community, the more likely they are to be a museum-goer. (A recent UK study supports this; see my review on The Curated Bookshelf.)

In all of these cases, however, there's underlying nuance and variations that are important to consider. Additionally, I am mindful that the questions I asked in my surveys are about traditional, structural things (like libraries and infrastructure) on a community level. That means I likely didn't capture more personal, neighborhood-based connections and engagement … and that may matter.

Over the next few essays, I'll explore community engagement by life stage and more broadly (which includes socioeconomic status), and then put all of it back into the context of museums and our work, so that we can, indeed, do more for our communities.



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 



The questions for these surveys have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.

As I shared earlier, The Parent Bubble is comprised primarily of extrinsically-motivated parents. That is, their extrinsic motivations for learning overall outweigh their intrinsic motivations.

Intrinsically-motivated parents are the opposite. They may have very strong extrinsic motivations for learning (likely), but that is outweighed by their intrinsic motivations.

Because of this, they approach learning, and museums, differently. Unlike extrinsically-motivated parents, they probably kept going to museums when they were in middle and high school themselves, and as young adults without children. Now that they have children, they keep going to museums.

Including art and history museums. Perhaps primarily art and history museums. Special interest museums too. They are more omnivorous in their museum-going habits than extrinsically-motivated parents.

That is, like extrinsically-motivated parents, having children changed their museum-going habits. But instead of going from casual or non-visitation to regular visitation, intrinsically-motivated parents simply added on children's museums, zoos, and science centers to their usual repertoire of regular museum visits. (Natural history museums seem to do a relatively good job of engaging both families and adults without children, but I don't have enough data right now to make more definitive statements about them; next year, perhaps.)

So when intrinsically-motivated parents take their kids to a museum, they appear to be just as likely to visit an art or history museum because they like them, and they hope their children will too. Thus, parents of young children who visit art and history museums are about as likely to cite their own reasons for visiting (learning opportunities, curiosity, interest) as they are to cite the needs of their children (learning opportunities, fun, etc.).

That mindset makes all the difference, as the parents are more personally interested in the content, and thus engaged with the visit. This has a few outcomes:

1. The parents are more likely to have a particularly meaningful experience;
2. The parents are more positive about their museum visits, their needs are met and they feel that museums are doing a good job;
3. The parents are modeling interested, curious behavior, which probably means their children are more likely to develop intrinsic motivations as well; and
4. Children visiting art and history museums appear to have deeper, more meaningful childhood museum experiences; they don't necessarily grasp the meaning of art or history, but they do share more emotive experiences, and/or experiences that help them contextualize themselves in the greater world. That's a pretty big outcome.

But there is something important for us to remember. Intrinsic or extrinsic motivations around learning are not a fixed state. As you can see in the graphic below (which I've shared before), most people have different levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. While I'm making generalizations based on overall motivation, it can change depending on the museum, the exhibit, or the mood. 

That is, present the right content in the right way, and an extrinsically-motivated parent may become interested and curious for their own sake. After all, there are a fair number of individuals that are strongly intrinsically motivated, but overall have an even stronger extrinsic motivation

And even the most intrinsically-motivated parent isn't intrinsically motivated all the time. My daughter has a specific history museum she loves to visit, and after multiple visits, I can tell you that I am no longer intrinsically motivated to visit. But I suppose you can say my extrinsic motivation to cultivate my daughter's intrinsic motivation has me there. Regularly. (Too regularly?)

Which is all to say that it's the product. If we want to pop that Parent Bubble in a way that retains families as kids grow older, we have to do better with the product.

Children's museums and science centers have to do a better job of engaging adult interests, going beyond the traveling exhibitions that do draw more adult audiences. Engage that captive audience. Perhaps learn more from what art and history museums do, borrow more objects that tell science stories as well, and build meaning by exploring our humanity in more thoughtful ways.

And art and history museums. Just because more meaning-making happens in these museums does not let them off the hook. If they want to be perceived as age appropriate for younger children, they actually have to be more age appropriate. That doesn't meaning changing everything (and likely turning off adult audiences), but it could mean turning to local children's museum and science center peers to develop better ways to engage younger visitors.

Because I believe that if museums drew on each other's strengths, we can build audiences for all museums more effectively and more meaningfully, thus delivering more impact, and being more valued in our communities.

Speaking of which. Intrinsically-motivated parents were significantly more engaged in their local communities, exhibiting deeper perceived connections and more concerns, than extrinsically-motivated parents. Now this is a chicken-and-egg scenario, but perhaps the greater exposure to others that intrinsically-motivated individuals have contributes to healthier communities. And museums may play a role in developing that understanding and interest at a young age (see my series on the value of museums for a bit more). Which leads to where my research is taking me next: museums and community.



A note about fielding research. I hold dear the idea that research for the field, about the field, should be shared with the field. But that only works when museums work together to make it possible. Since individual museums are needed to field this work, the survey also benefits participating museums on an individual level by providing benchmark data on visitation rates, motivations, attitudes and preferences, and demographic questions … all of which can then be tracked over time in the future. Participating museums are also allowed to add 1 - 2 custom questions specific to their needs. 

Which means if you value this research,  want more of it in the coming years, and want to track your own museum's progress over time, please support this work by enrolling your museum in the 2018 Annual Survey of Museum Goers. The fee for 2018 is only $1,000 per museum. 


The questions for this survey have been inspired by ongoing conversations within the museum field (who does/does not go to museums, why they do/do not visit, and what that means for communities) and ongoing research in the fields of education and psychology around lifelong learning and intrinsic motivation.